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newspapers，an overturned
catsup bottle，and a wet，half－eaten hot dog．At the far end of the right wall the
refrigerator stood with the door ajar and milk dripping down from the top shelf．It was the messiest kitchen I had
ever seen．
10．3示范段落分析
主题句：The kitchen was in a mess．
细节1：Along the left wall—counter and sink
细节2：On the far wall—washing machine
细节3：Right next to the door，on my right—table
细节4：At the far end of the right wall—refrigerator
结论句：It was the messiest kitchen I
had ever seen．
10．4关于如何写描述段落的建议
1）主题句给读者一个深刻的印象
写一段好的描述段落要注意两个方面：首先给读者一个深刻的印象（a
dominant impression），然后运用充分的细节（aptdetails）。这种深刻的印象必须首先吸引读者，因此不要在主题句中用太琐碎的东西冲淡这一印象。
比较下面两个主题句：
a．The kitchen
is in a mess．
b．The kitchen
is a place where the hostess does almost all the housework and as a consequence
it is not always attractive and neat．
显然，前一句主题句比后一句更吸引读者，因为它能给人以更深刻的印象。
2）提供充足的细节
具体和生动的细节是成功的描述所不可缺少的。在示范段落10…1中，作者通过海啸外表的生动细节以及速度和高度的具体数据描述海啸。在示范段落10－2中，在主题句后，作者提供细节描绘厨房是怎样的乱七八糟。记住不要提供无用的细节使读者失望。
3）使用空间顺序法（space
order）组织段落
好的描述还在于把一大堆具体的细节按空间顺序组成一个整体（关于空间顺序法见第12单元）。在示范段落10－1，作者按照从表面到海底，从远到近的顺序描绘。在示范段落10－2中，作者按照从左到右，从近到远的顺序描绘。
4）使用有新意的明喻和暗喻
明喻（Similes）和暗喻（metaphors）可使描述更加生动。但要尽量避免使用已经用得太滥的比喻。
Exercise 10…1
Directions：Write a paragraph of description，describing a student dormitory．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 10－2
Directions：Write a paragraph of desccription，describing a natural phenomenon that you are familiar with．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十一单元 推展段落方法之四
——过程分析法
11．1过程分析法
过程分析法（process analysis）用作支配方法时，其目的是告诉读者怎样做某事，说明某事物的工作原理或某事物的制造方法。
示范段落11－1
Even if you don't know how to cook，you'll never starve to death if you know how to prepare scrambled
eggs．You begin by
melting one tablespoon of butter in a frying pan over low heat．While the butter is melting，break three eggs into a bowl．Add 1／4teaspoon of salt，1／4 teaspoon of
paprika，and three
tablespoons of milk to the eggs in the bowl and mix them for about a minute．Pour the mixture into the frying
pan，break them
into shreds with a fork，or stir them with a spoon until they bee solid．When they are cooked，serve them with lightly buttered
toast．
11．2示范段落分析
主题句：Even if you don't know how to
cook，you'll never
starve to death if you know how to prepare scrambled eggs．
步骤1：melt butter
步骤2：break eggs
步骤3：add salt，paprika and milk to the eggs
步骤4：mix them
步骤5：pour into the frying pan and stir them
步骤6：serve with buttered toast
11．3关于如何写过程分析段落的建议
1）按照事物发展过程的顺序解释过程
过程分析通常使用时间顺序法组织段落，因为告诉别人怎样做某件事的最容易的方法是一步一步地分析。
2）提及必要的用具、成分的分量和时机，在适当的地方提醒读者注意容易做错的地方。
3）使用列举符号表示步骤。
下面的列举符号（listing signals）常用于过程描述：
first，second，third，etc．
to begin with，then，finally，etc．
Exercise 11…1
Directions：Read the following paragraph，then find out the topic sentence，the listing signals and analyze the steps of the process．
In his will，Alfred Nobel left specific instructions as to how the winners of the
science awards he endowed are to be selected．First，each year the
Swedish Academy of Sciences（physics and chemistry）and the Caroline Medical Institute（physiology and medicine）solicit nearly two thousand remendations from past laureates，university professors and other
experts from all over the world．The second step is the review of remendations received and the
selections of preliminary candidates by special mittees within the two
Swedish institutions．The mittee members are specifically instructed that those chosen “shall have conferred the greatest
benefit on mankind，”and that no considerations be given to the candidates' nationalities．Next，after lengthy investigation and discussion，the final choices are made for each
discipline．Finally，telegrams informing them of their
awards are sent to the new Nobel laureates about one month prior to the award
ceremony．
Topic Sentence：____________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Listing Signals：_____________________________________________
Steps： 1．______________________________________________
2．______________________________________________
3．______________________________________________
4．______________________________________________
Exercise 11…2
Directions：The sentences below constitute a paragraph on the scientific methods．However，the sentences have been given in a
disordered sequence．You should place them in their correct order．
a．Following
this method，the reseacher
first observe some aspects of nature and then poses a specific question about
what he has observed．
b．Experiments
based on this hypothesis are designed and conductedto test each contingency．
c．In order to
answer this question，potent data are collected．
d．After
thorough experimentation，the researcher validates，modifies，or rejects his original hypothesis．
e．Originating
from the branch of philosophy called epistemology，what we now know as the scientific method provides guidelinesf of
the systematic acquisition of knowledge．
f．On the basis
of these data，a hypothesis
is proposed to explain them．
The right order：______________________________
Exercise 11…3
Directions：Write a paragraph about how to prepare a barbecue picnic in the park．
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十二单元 组织段落方法——时间顺序法和空间顺序法
组织段落的常见方法有：1）时间顺序；2）空间顺序；3）重要性顺序和；4）熟悉度顺序。在前几单元，我们曾提到写叙述段落和过程分析时用时间顺序，写描述段落时用空间顺序。在这一单元里，我们将着重讨论这两种组织方法。另两种方法——重要性和熟悉度顺序——将在第19单元讨论。
12．1时间顺序法
段落内组织细节的最简单最常见的方法是时间顺序法（time order
organization）。时间顺序通常用于叙述和过程分析——先发生什么，然后怎样，再然后怎样，等等。正如我们在示范段落9－1和示范段落11－1所看到的一样。其实在你的生活中你经常运用这种方法。你也许曾经告诉你父母在学校里发生的事情。你也许向老师或同学叙述过你是怎样做一个实验的。这些用的都是时间顺序。
12．2关于如何写时间顺序段落的建议
1）写下你要记录的事件或步骤，然后按照时间顺序排列
2）确定你的写作目的，然后写出带有中心思想的主题句
3）从你列举的事件或步骤中删除与中心思想无关的细节
4）使用“first，then，the next step”等等列举符号把细节连接起来
12．3空间顺序法
段落组织的另一方法是空间顺序法（space order
organization）。空间顺序主要用于描述，正如我们在示范段落10－1和示范段落10－2所看到的。空间顺序和时间顺序一样，是生活中经常使用的方法。你也许曾在信中向你父母描述你的学院，或向你的同学描述一个风景区。
12．4关于如何写空间顺序段落的建议
按照你想让你的读者了解你要描绘的场面的方式移动——例如，从左到右，或从背景到前景，或按顺时针方向，等等。
12．5综合运用空间顺序和时间顺序
有时候，尤其在描写参观时，有必要同时运用空间顺序和时间顺序，以增强段落的统一性。
示范段落12…1
We enjoyed our visit to Dr Hassan's house，perched high up on a hill．Walking up the long driveway，we approached the huge bronze door．A butler was standing in the open
doorway，ushering
guests into the house．Going in，we passed the oak－pannelled library and the formal dining room before we arrived at
the ballroom，where the
reception was being held．Under three sparkling chandeliers，more than a hundred people were enjoying champagne，hors d'oeuvres and good
conversation．
12．6示范段落分析
主题句：We enjoyed our visit to Dr
Hassan's house．
时间空间顺序：driveway→door→house→library→diningroom→ballroom
Exercise 12－1
Directions：Arrange the sentences into a paragraph，using the time order and adding the necessary listing signals．
—She never had a birthday party and
she was twenty－one year sold．
—The party was really a successful
one．
—We planned to serve fruit punch and
coffee．
—We planned entertainment．
—We carefully made a guest list．
—We planned a surprise party for
Mary recently．
—We included many of her friends
from school，a few of her
friends from her neighbourhood，and all of her brothers and sisters．
—A boy did mayic tricks skillfully；another boy played the guitar well．
—We also wanted chicken sandwiches，a birthday cake with twenty－one candles，and ice cream．
—We especially enjoyed the group
singing．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 12…2
Directions：Narrate an incident from your own childhood in which you behave in a
way you later regretted，using time order．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exercise 12－3
Directions：Narrate one of your trip，either by bike，by bus or bytrain，bining time order and space order．
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
第十三单元 推展段落方法之五——举例法
13．1举例法
举例法（examples）也是推展主题的主要方法。举例法有两种形式，一种是首先陈述自己的观点，然后举出一个或多个例子阐明观点；另一种是先举一个很长的例子，然后转入例子所要阐明的观点。
读下面段落：
Courage is the willingness to take a risk when the oute is
uncertain，and when the
risk taken may involve harm，loss，or danger to
the one taking it．The
courageous person fears no one and nothing．He or she is undaunted by danger or peril．He or she will venture boldly into
an uncertain situation，hardly giving a thought to the harm or consequences which may result
to his or her person．
以上段落的缺点是乏味、含糊，不能向读者表达作者关于“courage”的看法。请看下面重写后的段落。
示范段落13…1
Courage is the willingness to take a risk when the oute is
uncertain，and when the
risk taken may involve harm，loss，or danger to
the one taking it．For example，in a Los Angeles suburb，a twelve－year－old girl ran into a burning house to rescue her baby brother，pulled him unconscious out of the
burning bedroom，and dragged
him down the stairs and outside to safety．This was arousing display of courage．The girl had been safe outside the flaming house when she remembered
her sleeping brother．Disregarding her personal safety，she plunged into the flaming house to save him．
13．2示范段落分析
较之上一段落，这个段落更能清晰地传达作者关于“courage”的观点。首先，作者概述什么是“courage”，然后举出一个女孩子从燃烧着的房子中把弟弟救出来的例子阐明这一观点。
13．2关于写举例法段落的建议
1）选择恰当的例子
所选的例子应该能够恰当地支持自己的观点。
2）要表明你的例子所要阐明的观点
大多数作者使用“for example”等短语引出例子。其它常用的短语有：“as an example”，“to illustrate”，“for instance”，“an illustration of it”，“a case in point”（见第34单元）。
3）不要滥用例子
Exercise 13…1
Directions：Read the following paragraph，point out the topic sentence，and find out what example the writer uses to illustrate his point．
Despite her wealth，Madame Rubinstein had a mania for saving money．French President Georges Pompidou
once rented a Paris apartment from her．She noticed that he left the building at exactlly8：50 every morning．Madame began ordering her daily
taxi for 8：45 so that
she could save on cab fare by following Pompidou's motorcycle escort through
the heavy Paris traffic．
Topic Sentence：__________________________